SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Musical notation</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Musical notation</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about a notation for music. For the "musical" notation in mathematics, see <a href="Musical_isomorphism" title="Musical isomorphism">Musical isomorphism</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Music markup" redirects here. For the XML application, see <a href="Music_Markup_Language" title="Music Markup Language">Music Markup Language</a>.</div>

</p>

<p><b>Musical notation</b> is any system used to visually represent music. Systems of notation generally represent the elements of a <a href="Piece_of_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Piece of music">piece of music</a> that are considered important for its performance in the context of a given musical tradition. The process of interpreting musical notation is often referred to as <b>reading music</b>.

</p><p>Distinct methods of notation have been invented throughout history by various cultures. Much information about <a href="Ancient_music" title="Ancient music">ancient music</a> notation is fragmentary. Even in the same time frames, different styles of music and different cultures use different music notation methods.

</p><p>For example, <a href="Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical</a> performers most often use <a href="Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">sheet music</a> using <a href="Staff_(music)" title="Staff (music)">staves</a>, <a href="Time_signature" title="Time signature">time signatures</a>, <a href="Key_signature" title="Key signature">key signatures</a>, and <a href="Notehead" title="Notehead">noteheads</a> for writing and deciphering <a href="Musical_composition" title="Musical composition">pieces</a>. But even so, there are far more systems than just that. For instance, in professional <a href="Country_music" title="Country music">country music</a>, the <a href="Nashville_Number_System" title="Nashville Number System">Nashville Number System</a> is the main method, and for <a href="String_instrument" title="String instrument">string instruments</a> such as <a href="Guitar" title="Guitar">guitar</a>, it is quite common for <a href="Tablature" title="Tablature">tablature</a> to be used by players.

</p><p>Musical notation uses ancient and <a href="Modern_musical_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern musical symbols">modern symbols</a> made upon any media such as stone, <a href="Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a>, <a href="Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, <a href="Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a> or <a href="Manuscript_paper" title="Manuscript paper">manuscript paper</a>; printed using a <a href="Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1400</span>), a <a href="Computer_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer printer">computer printer</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1980</span>) or other <a href="Music_engraving" title="Music engraving">printing</a> or <a href="Photocopier" title="Photocopier">modern copying technology</a>.

</p><p>Although many ancient cultures used symbols to represent <a href="Melody" title="Melody">melodies</a> and <a href="Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythms</a>, none of them were particularly comprehensive, which has limited today's understanding of their music. The direct ancestor of the modern <a href="Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> system of notation emerged in <a href="Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a>, in the context of the <a href="Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a>'s attempts to standardize the performance of <a href="Plainsong" title="Plainsong">plainsong</a> melodies so that chants could be standardized across different areas. Notation <a href="Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">developed further during the Renaissance</a> and <a href="Baroque_music" title="Baroque music">Baroque music</a> eras. In the <a href="Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">Classical period</a> (1750–1820) and the <a href="Romantic_music_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic music era">Romantic music era</a> (1820–1900), notation continued to develop as the <a href="Music_technology_(mechanical)" title="Music technology (mechanical)">technology for musical instruments</a> advanced. In the <a href="Contemporary_classical_music" title="Contemporary classical music">contemporary classical music</a> of the 20th and 21st centuries, music notation has evolved further, with the introduction of <a href="Graphical_notation_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical notation (music)">graphical notation</a> by some modern composers and the use, since the 1980s, of computer-based <a href="Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">scorewriter</a> programs for notating music. Music notation has been adapted to many kinds of music, including <a href="Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a>, <a href="Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular music</a>, and <a href="Traditional_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional music">traditional music</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Near_East">Ancient Near East</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music of Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="Hurrian_songs" title="Hurrian songs">Hurrian songs</a></div>

<p>The earliest form of musical notation can be found in a <a href="Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform</a> tablet that was created at <a href="Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, in <a href="Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> (today's <a href="Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), in about 1400 BCE. The <a href="Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">tablet</a> represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, showing it was composed in <a href="Harmony" title="Harmony">harmonies</a> of <a href="Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">thirds</a> using a <a href="Diatonic_scale" title="Diatonic scale">diatonic scale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilmerCivil1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilmerCivil1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A tablet from about 1250 BCE shows a more developed form of notation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilmer1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilmer1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a <a href="Lyre" title="Lyre">lyre</a>, the <a href="Musical_tuning" title="Musical tuning">tuning</a> of which is described in other tablets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest1994161–163_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest1994161–163-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research indicates these notations had dual purposes for liturgical and secular musical pieces since music was essential in both religious ceremonies and courtly activities.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although they are fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest notated <a href="Melody" title="Melody">melodies</a> found anywhere in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest1994161_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest1994161-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system of ancient Greece</a></div>

<p><a href="Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> musical notation was in use from at least the 6th century BCE until approximately the 4th century CE; only one complete composition (<a href="Seikilos_epitaph" title="Seikilos epitaph">Seikilos epitaph</a>) and a number of fragments using this notation survive.

</p><p>The notation for sung music consists of letter symbols for the <a href="Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitches</a>, placed above text syllables. Rhythm is indicated in a rudimentary way only, with long and short symbols. The <a href="Seikilos_epitaph" title="Seikilos epitaph">Seikilos epitaph</a> has been variously dated between the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.

</p><p>Three hymns by <a href="Mesomedes" title="Mesomedes">Mesomedes</a> of <a href="Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> exist in <a href="Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a>. The <a href="Delphic_Hymns" title="Delphic Hymns">Delphic Hymns</a>, dated to the 2nd century BCE also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved.

</p><p>Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the <a href="Decline_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Western Roman Empire">decline of the Western Roman Empire</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine music</a></div>

<p><a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> music once included music for court ceremonies, but has only survived as vocal <a href="Church_music" title="Church music">church music</a> within various <a href="Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox</a> traditions of monodic (<a href="Monophony" title="Monophony">monophonic</a>) chant written down in Byzantine round notation (see Macarie's <i><a href="Octoechos_(liturgy)" title="Octoechos (liturgy)">anastasimatarion</a></i> with the Greek text translated into <a href="Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a> and transliterated into its corresponding <a href="Romanian_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Romanian Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic script</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Since the 6th century, Greek theoretical categories (<i>melos</i>, <i>genos</i>, <i><a href="Harmonia" title="Harmonia">harmonia</a></i>, <i>systema</i>) played a key role in the understanding and transmission of Byzantine music, The tradition of <a href="Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, especially, had a strong impact on the pre-Islamic <a href="Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> comparable to that of <a href="Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Persian music</a>. The earliest evidence are <a href="Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> fragments of Greek <i>tropologia</i>. These fragments present the hymn text following a modal signature or key (like "<span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ΠΛ Α</span></span>" for <i>echos plagios protos</i> or "<span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">Β</span></span>" for <i>echos devteros</i>).

</p><p>Unlike Western notation, Byzantine <a href="Neume" title="Neume">neumes</a> used since the 10th century were always related to <a href="Mode_(music)" title="Mode (music)">modal</a> steps (same modal degree, one degree lower, two degrees higher, etc.) in relation to such a clef or modal key (<a href="Enechema" class="mw-redirect" title="Enechema">modal signatures</a>). Originally this key or the incipit of a common melody was enough to indicate a certain <a href="Melodic_pattern" title="Melodic pattern">melodic model</a> given within the <a href="Echos" title="Echos">echos</a>. Next to <a href="Ekphonetic_notation" title="Ekphonetic notation">ekphonetic notation</a>, only used in <a href="Lectionary" title="Lectionary">lectionaries</a> to indicate formulas used during scriptural lessons, melodic notation developed not earlier than between the 9th and the 10th century, when a <i>theta</i> (<span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">θ</span></span>), <i>oxeia</i> (<span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el">/</i></span>) or <i>diple</i> (<span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el">//</i></span>) were written under a certain syllable of the text whenever a longer <a href="Melisma" title="Melisma">melisma</a> was expected. This primitive form was called "theta" or "diple notation".

</p><p>The evolution of this notation can be observed in Greek monastic chant books like those of the <a href="Sticheron" title="Sticheron"><i>sticherarion</i></a> and the <a href="Irmologion" title="Irmologion"><i>heirmologion</i></a>. Chartres notation was used on <a href="Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a> and Constantinople, and Coislin notation was used within the patriarchates of Jerusalem and Alexandria, while another gestic notation was originally used for the <i>asmatikon</i> (choir book) and <i>kontakarion</i> (book of the soloist or monophonaris) of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite. The earliest books which have survived, are "kondakars" in Slavonic translation which already show a notation system known as <a href="Byzantine_music#The_Kievan_Rus'_and_the_earliest_manuscripts_of_the_cathedral_rite" title="Byzantine music">Kondakarian notation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the <a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, notational signs are ordered left to right (though the direction could be adapted, like in certain <a href="Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> manuscripts). The question of rhythm was entirely based on <i>cheironomia</i> (the interpretation of so-called great signs which derived from different chant books). These great signs (<span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">μεγάλα σῃμάδια</span></span>) indicated well-known melodic phrases given by gestures of the <a href="Cantor_(Christianity)" title="Cantor (Christianity)">choirleaders</a> of the cathedral rite. They existed once as part of an oral tradition, developed into Kondakarian notation and were integrated, during the 13th century, into Byzantine round notation as a kind of universal notation system.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Today, the main difference between Western and Eastern neumes is that Eastern notation symbols are "differential" rather than absolute, i.e., they indicate pitch steps (rising, falling or at the same step), and the musicians must deduce the specific intervals based on the musical context and their current pitch. These step symbols themselves, or better "phonic neumes", resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called <i>gántzoi</i> ('hooks') in <a href="Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">modern Greek</a>.

</p><p>Notes as pitch classes or modal keys (usually memorised by modal signatures) are represented in written form only between these neumes (in manuscripts usually written in red ink). In modern notation they simply serve as optional reminders, with modal and tempo directions added when necessary. In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a temporary change into another <i>echos</i>.

</p><p>The so-called "great signs" were once related to cheironomic signs; according to modern interpretations they are understood as embellishments and microtonal attractions (pitch changes smaller than a <a href="Semitone" title="Semitone">semitone</a>), both essential in Byzantine chant.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Since <a href="Chrysanthos_of_Madytos" title="Chrysanthos of Madytos">Chrysanthos of Madytos</a> there are seven standard note names used for "solfège" (<i>parallagē</i>) <i>pá, vú, g<sup>h</sup>á, d<sup>h</sup>i, ké, zō, nē</i>, while the older practice still used the four <i>enechemata</i> or intonation formulas of the four echoi given by the modal signatures, the authentic or <i>kyrioi</i> in ascending direction, and the plagal or <i>plagioi</i> in descending direction (<a href="Papadic_Octoechos" title="Papadic Octoechos">Papadic Octoechos</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With exception of <i>vú and zō,</i> they do roughly correspond to Western solmization syllables as <i>re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do</i>. Byzantine music uses the eight natural, non-tempered scales whose elements were identified by <i>Ēkhoi</i>, "sounds", exclusively, and therefore the absolute pitch of each note may slightly vary each time, depending on the particular <i>Ēkhos</i> used. Byzantine notation is still used in many Orthodox Churches. Sometimes cantors also use transcriptions into Western or Kievan staff notation while adding non-notatable embellishment material from memory and "sliding" into the natural scales from experience. However, even in modern neume editions since the reform of Chrysanthos, many details rely on oral tradition passed down by traditional masters.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="13th-century_Near_East">13th-century Near East</h3></div>

<p>In 1252, <a href="Safi_al-Din_al-Urmawi" title="Safi al-Din al-Urmawi">Safi al-Din al-Urmawi</a> developed a form of musical notation where <a href="Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythms</a> were represented by <a href="Geometry" title="Geometry">geometric</a> shapes. Many subsequent scholars of rhythm have sought to develop graphical geometrical notations. For example, a similar geometric system was published in 1987 by Kjell Gustafson, whose method represents a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToussaint20043_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToussaint20043-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rhythmic notation during its early stages developed Eastern musical traditions while simultaneously establishing concepts that Western music used to build its notation systems later on.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Europe">Early Europe</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Neume" title="Neume">Neume</a></div>

<p>The scholar and music theorist <a href="Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>, while writing in the early 7th century, wrote that "unless sounds are held by the memory of man, they perish, because they cannot be written down."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsidore_of_Seville200695_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsidore_of_Seville200695-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the middle of the 9th century, however, a form of neumatic notation began to develop in monasteries in Europe as a <a href="Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> device for <a href="Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a>, using symbols known as <a href="Neume" title="Neume">neumes</a>; the earliest surviving musical notation of this type is in the <i>Musica Disciplina</i> of <a href="Aurelian_of_R%C3%A9%C3%B4me" title="Aurelian of Réôme">Aurelian of Réôme</a>, from about 850. There are scattered survivals from the <a href="Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> before this time, of a type of notation known as <a href="Neume" title="Neume">Visigothic neumes</a>, but its few surviving fragments have not yet been deciphered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZapke2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2010]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="A_complex_issue,_to_be_sure,_but_this_book_has_480_pages._Surely_it_does_not_take_that_long_to_demonstrate_that_nothing_at_all_has_been_deciphered.&#32;(May_2010)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZapke2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2010]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="A_complex_issue,_to_be_sure,_but_this_book_has_480_pages._Surely_it_does_not_take_that_long_to_demonstrate_that_nothing_at_all_has_been_deciphered.&#32;(May_2010)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem with this notation was that it only showed melodic contours and consequently the music could not be read by someone who did not know the music already.

</p>

<p>Notation had developed far enough to notate melody, but there was still no system for notating rhythm. A mid-13th-century treatise, <i><a href="De_Mensurabili_Musica" title="De Mensurabili Musica">De Mensurabili Musica</a></i>, explains a set of six <a href="Rhythmic_modes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhythmic modes">rhythmic modes</a> that were in use at the time,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen2002628_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen2002628-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it is not clear how they were formed. These rhythmic modes were all in triple time and rather limited the rhythm in chant to six different repeating patterns. This was a flaw seen by German music theorist <a href="Franco_of_Cologne" title="Franco of Cologne">Franco of Cologne</a> and summarised as part of his treatise <i>Ars Cantus Mensurabilis</i> (the art of measured chant, or <a href="Mensural_notation" title="Mensural notation">mensural notation</a>). He suggested that individual notes could have their own rhythms represented by the shape of the note. Not until the 14th century did something like the present system of fixed note lengths arise. The use of regular measures (bars) became commonplace by the end of the 17th century.

</p><p>The founder of what is now considered the standard music staff was <a href="Guido_of_Arezzo" title="Guido of Arezzo">Guido d'Arezzo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOtten1910_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOtten1910-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an Italian Benedictine monk who lived from about 991 until after 1033. He taught the use of <a href="Solmization" title="Solmization">solmization</a> syllables based on a hymn to <a href="Saint_John_the_Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint John the Baptist">Saint John the Baptist</a>, which begins <a href="Ut_Queant_Laxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ut Queant Laxis"><i>Ut queant laxis</i></a> and was written by the <a href="Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombard</a> historian <a href="Paul_the_Deacon" title="Paul the Deacon">Paul the Deacon</a>. The first stanza is:

</p>

<ol><li><i><b>Ut</b> queant laxis</i></li>

<li><i><b>re</b>sonare fibris</i></li>

<li><i><b>Mi</b>ra gestorum</i></li>

<li><i><b>fa</b>muli tuorum</i>,</li>

<li><i><b>Sol</b>ve polluti</i></li>

<li><b>la</b>bii reatum,</li>

<li><b>S</b>ancte <b>I</b>ohannes.</li></ol>

<p>Guido used the first syllable of each line, <i>Ut</i>, <i>Re</i>, <i>Mi</i>, <i>Fa</i>, <i>Sol</i>, <i>La</i>, and <i>Si</i>, to read notated music in terms of <a href="Guidonian_hand#Hexachord_in_Middle_Ages" title="Guidonian hand">hexachords</a>; they were not note names, and each could, depending on context, be applied to any note. In the 17th century, <i>Ut</i> was changed in most countries except France to the easily singable, open syllable Do, believed to have been taken either from the name of the Italian theorist <a href="Giovanni_Battista_Doni" title="Giovanni Battista Doni">Giovanni Battista <b>Do</b>ni</a>, or from the Latin word <i><b>Do</b>minus</i>, meaning <i>Lord</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNaught189343_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNaught189343-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Christian monks developed the first forms of modern European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallNeitzBattani2003100_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallNeitzBattani2003100-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives. The <a href="Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurray199445_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurray199445-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_staff_notation">Modern staff notation</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_musical_symbols" title="List of musical symbols">List of musical symbols</a></div>

<p>Modern music notation is used by musicians of many different genres throughout the world. The staff (or stave, in British English) consists of 5 parallel horizontal lines that act as a framework upon which pitches are indicated by placing oval note-heads on (i.e. crossing) the staff lines, between the lines (<i>i.e.</i> in the spaces) or above and below the staff using small additional lines called <a href="Ledger_line" title="Ledger line">ledger lines</a>. Notation is read from left to right, which makes setting music for right-to-left scripts difficult. The <b>pitch</b> of a note is indicated by the vertical position of the note-head within the staff, and can be modified by <a href="Accidental_(music)" title="Accidental (music)">accidentals</a>. The <b>duration</b> (note length or <a href="Note_value" title="Note value">note value</a>) is indicated by the form of the note-head or with the addition of a note-stem plus beams or flags. A stemless hollow oval is a <a href="Whole_note" title="Whole note">whole note</a> or semibreve, a hollow rectangle or stemless hollow oval with one or two vertical lines on both sides is a <a href="Double_whole_note" title="Double whole note">double whole note</a> or breve. A stemmed hollow oval is a <a href="Half_note" title="Half note">half note</a> or minim. Solid ovals always use stems, and can indicate <a href="Quarter_note" title="Quarter note">quarter notes</a> (crotchets) or, with added beams or flags, smaller subdivisions. Additional symbols such as <a href="Dotted_note" title="Dotted note">dots</a> and <a href="Tie_(music)" title="Tie (music)">ties</a> can lengthen the duration of a note.

</p><p>A staff of written music generally begins with a <a href="Clef" title="Clef">clef</a>, which indicates the pitch-range of the staff. The <a href="Treble_clef" class="mw-redirect" title="Treble clef">treble clef</a> or G clef was originally a letter G and it identifies the second line up on the five-line staff as the note G above middle C. The <a href="Bass_clef" class="mw-redirect" title="Bass clef">bass clef</a> or F clef identifies the second line down as the note F below middle C. While the treble and bass clef are the most widely used, other clefs, which identify middle C, are used for some instruments, such as the <a href="Alto_clef" class="mw-redirect" title="Alto clef">alto clef</a> (for <a href="Viola" title="Viola">viola</a> and <a href="Alto_trombone" title="Alto trombone">alto trombone</a>) and the <a href="Tenor_clef" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenor clef">tenor clef</a> (used for some <a href="Cello" title="Cello">cello</a>, <a href="Bassoon" title="Bassoon">bassoon</a>, <a href="Trombone" title="Trombone">tenor trombone</a>, and <a href="Double_bass" title="Double bass">double bass</a> music). Some instruments use mainly one clef, such as violin and flute which use <a href="Treble_clef" class="mw-redirect" title="Treble clef">treble clef</a>, and <a href="Double_bass" title="Double bass">double bass</a> and <a href="Tuba" title="Tuba">tuba</a> which use <a href="Bass_clef" class="mw-redirect" title="Bass clef">bass clef</a>. Some instruments, such as <a href="Piano" title="Piano">piano</a> and <a href="Pipe_organ" title="Pipe organ">pipe organ</a>, regularly use both treble and bass clefs.

</p><p>Following the clef, the <a href="Key_signature" title="Key signature">key signature</a> is a group of 0 to 7 <a href="Sharp_(music)" title="Sharp (music)">sharp</a> (<a href="Sharp_(music)" title="Sharp (music)">♯</a>) or <a href="Flat_(music)" title="Flat (music)">flat</a> (<a href="Flat_(music)" title="Flat (music)">♭</a>) signs placed on the staff to indicate the <a href="Key_(music)" title="Key (music)">key</a> of the piece or song by specifying that certain notes are sharp or flat throughout the piece, unless otherwise indicated with <a href="Accidental_(music)" title="Accidental (music)">accidentals</a> added before certain notes. When a flat (<a href="Flat_(music)" title="Flat (music)">♭</a>) sign is placed before a note, the pitch of the note is lowered by one semitone. Similarly, a sharp sign (<a href="Sharp_(music)" title="Sharp (music)">♯</a>) raises the pitch by one semitone. For example, a sharp on the note D would raise it to <a href="D%E2%99%AF_(musical_note)" title="D♯ (musical note)">D♯</a> while a flat would lower it to <a href="D%E2%99%AD_(musical_note)" title="D♭ (musical note)">D♭</a>. <a href="Double_sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="Double sharp">Double sharps</a> and <a href="Double_flat" class="mw-redirect" title="Double flat">double flats</a> are less common, but they are used. A double sharp is placed before a note to make it two semitones higher, a double flat makes it two semitones lower. A <a href="Natural_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sign">natural sign</a> placed before a note renders that note in its "natural" form, which means that any sharp or flat applied to that note from the key signature or an accidental is cancelled. Sometimes a <a href="Courtesy_accidental" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtesy accidental">courtesy accidental</a> is used in music where it is not technically required, to remind the musician of what pitch is required.

</p><p>Following the key signature is the <a href="Time_signature" title="Time signature">time signature</a>. The time signature typically consists of two numbers, with one of the most common being <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>4</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>4</b></sub></span></span></span></span>. The top "4" indicates that there are four beats per measure (also called <a href="Bar_(music)" title="Bar (music)">bar</a>). The bottom "4" indicates that each of those beats are quarter notes. Measures divide the piece into groups of <a href="Beat_(music)" title="Beat (music)">beats</a>, and the time signatures specify those groupings. <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>4</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>4</b></sub></span></span></span></span> is used so often that it is also called "<a href="Common_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Common time">common time</a>", and it may be indicated with <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"></span></span> rather than numbers. Other frequently used time signatures are <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>3</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>4</b></sub></span></span></span></span> (three beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>2</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>4</b></sub></span></span></span></span> (two beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>6</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>8</b></sub></span></span></span></span> (six beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note) and <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>12</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>8</b></sub></span></span></span></span> (twelve beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note; in practice, the eighth notes are typically put into four groups of three eighth notes. <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>12</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>8</b></sub></span></span></span></span> is a <a href="Compound_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound time">compound time</a> type of time signature). Many other time signatures exist, such as <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>2</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>2</b></sub></span></span></span></span> or <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>3</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>8</b></sub></span></span></span></span>.

</p><p>Many short <a href="Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a> pieces from the <a href="Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">Classical era</a> and songs from <a href="Traditional_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional music">traditional music</a> and <a href="Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular music</a> are in one time signature for much or all of the piece. Music from the <a href="Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Romantic</a> era and later, particularly <a href="Contemporary_classical_music" title="Contemporary classical music">contemporary classical music</a> and <a href="Rock_music" title="Rock music">rock music</a> genres such as <a href="Progressive_rock" title="Progressive rock">progressive rock</a> and the <a href="Hardcore_punk" title="Hardcore punk">hardcore punk</a> subgenre <a href="Mathcore" title="Mathcore">mathcore</a>, may use <a href="Mixed_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed meter">mixed meter</a>; songs or pieces change from one meter to another, for example alternating between bars of <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>5</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>4</b></sub></span></span></span></span> and <span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.85em;font-size:80%;text-align:center"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>7</b></sup><br><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><b>8</b></sub></span></span></span></span>.

</p><p>Directions to the player regarding matters such as <a href="Tempo" title="Tempo">tempo</a> (e.g., <a href="Andante_(tempo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Andante (tempo)"><i>andante</i></a>) and <a href="Dynamics_(music)" title="Dynamics (music)">dynamics</a> (e.g., <i><a href="Forte_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Forte (music)">forte</a></i>) appear above or below the staff. Terms indicating the <a href="Musical_expression" title="Musical expression">musical expression</a> or "feel" of a song or piece are indicated at the beginning of the piece and at any points where the mood changes (e.g., <i>gelassen</i>) For vocal music, lyrics are written near the pitches of the melody. For short pauses (breaths), <a href="Retake" class="mw-redirect" title="Retake">retakes</a> (retakes are indicated with a ' mark) are added.

</p><p>In music for <a href="Musical_ensemble" title="Musical ensemble">ensembles</a>, a "<a href="Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">score</a>" shows music for all players together, with the staves for the different instruments and/or voices stacked vertically. The <a href="Conducting" title="Conducting">conductor</a> uses the score while leading an <a href="Orchestra" title="Orchestra">orchestra</a>, <a href="Concert_band" title="Concert band">concert band</a>, <a href="Choir" title="Choir">choir</a> or other large ensemble. Individual performers in an ensemble play from "parts" which contain only the music played by an individual musician. A score can be constructed from a complete set of parts and vice versa. The process was laborious and time consuming when parts were hand-copied from the score, but since the development of <a href="Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">scorewriter</a> computer software in the 1980s, a score stored electronically can have parts automatically prepared by the program and printed out quickly and inexpensively using a computer printer.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations_on_staff_notation">Variations on staff notation</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Percussion_notation" title="Percussion notation">Percussion notation</a> conventions are varied because of the wide range of percussion instruments. Percussion instruments are generally grouped into two categories: pitched (e.g. <a href="Glockenspiel" title="Glockenspiel">glockenspiel</a> or <a href="Tubular_bells" title="Tubular bells">tubular bells</a>) and non-pitched (e.g. <a href="Bass_drum" title="Bass drum">bass drum</a> and <a href="Snare_drum" title="Snare drum">snare drum</a>). The notation of non-pitched percussion instruments is less standardized. Pitched instruments use standard Western classical notation for the pitches and rhythms. In general, notation for unpitched percussion uses the five line staff, with different lines and spaces representing different <a href="Drum_kit" title="Drum kit">drum kit</a> instruments. Standard Western rhythmic notation is used to indicate the rhythm.</li>

<li><a href="Figured_bass" title="Figured bass">Figured bass</a> notation originated in <a href="Baroque_music" title="Baroque music">Baroque</a> <a href="Figured_bass" title="Figured bass"><i>basso continuo</i></a> parts. It is also used extensively in <a href="Accordion" title="Accordion">accordion</a> notation. The bass notes of the music are conventionally notated, along with numbers and other signs that determine which chords the harpsichordist, organist or lutenist should improvise. It does not, however, specify the exact pitches of the harmony, leaving that for the performer to improvise.</li>

<li>A <a href="Lead_sheet" title="Lead sheet">lead sheet</a> specifies only the melody, lyrics and harmony, using one staff with <a href="Chord_notation" title="Chord notation">chord symbols</a> placed above and lyrics below. It is used to capture the essential elements of a <a href="Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular song</a> without specifying how the song should be arranged or performed.</li>

<li>A <a href="Chord_chart" title="Chord chart">chord chart</a> or "chart" contains little or no melodic or voice-leading information at all, but provides basic harmonic information about the <a href="Chord_progression" title="Chord progression">chord progression</a>. Some chord charts also contain rhythmic information, indicated using <a href="Slash_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash notation">slash notation</a> for full beats and rhythmic notation for rhythms. This is the most common kind of written music used by professional <a href="Session_musician" title="Session musician">session musicians</a> playing <a href="Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> or other forms of <a href="List_of_popular_music_genres" class="mw-redirect" title="List of popular music genres">popular music</a> and is intended primarily for the <a href="Rhythm_section" title="Rhythm section">rhythm section</a> (usually containing <a href="Piano" title="Piano">piano</a>, <a href="Guitar" title="Guitar">guitar</a>, <a href="Bass_guitar" title="Bass guitar">bass</a> and <a href="Drum" title="Drum">drums</a>).</li>

<li>Simpler chord charts for songs may contain only the chord changes, placed above the lyrics where they occur. Such charts depend on prior knowledge of the melody, and are used as reminders in performance or informal <a href="Group_singing" class="mw-redirect" title="Group singing">group singing</a>. Some chord charts intended for <a href="Rhythm_section" title="Rhythm section">rhythm section</a> accompanists contain only the chord progression.</li>

<li>The <a href="Shape_note" title="Shape note">shape note</a> system is found in some church hymnals, <a href="Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">sheet music</a>, and song books, especially in the <a href="Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>. Instead of the customary elliptical note head, note heads of various shapes are used to show the position of the note on the major scale. <a href="Sacred_Harp" title="Sacred Harp"><i>The Sacred Harp</i></a> is one of the most popular tune books using shape notes.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_various_countries">In various countries</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korea">Korea</h3></div>

<p><i>Jeongganbo</i> is a traditional musical notation system created during the time of <a href="Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">Sejong the Great</a>. It was the first East Asian system to represent rhythm, pitch, and time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among various kinds of Korean traditional music, <i>Jeong-gan-bo</i> targets a particular genre, <i>Jeong-ak</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">정악, 正樂</span></span>).

</p><p><i>Jeong-gan-bo</i> specifies the pitch by writing the note's name down in a box called <i>jeong-gan</i>. One <i>jeong-gan</i> is one beat each, and it can be split into two, three or more to hold half beats, quarter beats, and more.

</p><p>Also, there are many markings indicating things such as ornaments. Most of these were later created by Ki-su Kim.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Swaralipi" title="Swaralipi">Swaralipi</a></div>

<p>The <i><a href="Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></i> text (1200 BCE – 1000 BCE) contains what are probably the world's oldest surviving melodies.<sup id="cite_ref-brunonettle_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brunonettle-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The musical notation is written usually immediately above, sometimes within, the line of <i>Samaveda</i> text, either in syllabic or numerical form depending on the Samavedic <i>Sakha</i> (school).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian scholar and musical theorist <a href="Pingala" title="Pingala">Pingala</a> (c. 200 BCE), in his <i>Chanda Sutra</i>, used marks denoting long and short syllables to indicate meters in Sanskrit poetry.

</p><p>A rock inscription circa 7th–8th century CE at <a href="Kudumiyanmalai" title="Kudumiyanmalai">Kudumiyanmalai</a>, Tamil Nadu contains an early example of a musical notation. It was first identified and published by archaeologist/epigraphist <a href="D._R._Bhandarkar" class="mw-redirect" title="D. R. Bhandarkar">D. R. Bhandarkar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhandarkar1913–1914_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhandarkar1913–1914-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Written in the <i>Pallava-grantha</i> script of the 7th century, it contains 38 horizontal lines of notation inscribed on a rectangular rock face (dimensions of around 13 by 14 feet). Each line of the notation contains 64 characters (characters representing musical notes), written in groups of four notes. The basic characters for the seven notes, <i>sa</i>, <i>ri</i>, <i>ga</i>, <i>ma</i>, <i>pa</i>, <i>dha</i>, <i>ni</i>, are seen to be suffixed with the vowels <i>a</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>e</i>. For example, in the place of <i>sa</i>, any one of <i>sa</i>, <i>si</i>, <i>su</i> or <i>se</i> is used. Similarly, in place of <i>ri</i>, any one of <i>ra</i>, <i>ri</i>, <i>ru</i> or <i>re</i> is used. Horizontal lines divide the notation into 7 sections. Each section contains 4 to 7 lines of notation, with a title indicating its musical 'mode'. These modes may have been popular from at least the 6th century CE and were incorporated into the Indian <i>raga</i> system that developed later. But some of the unusual features seen in this notation have been given several non-conclusive interpretations by scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiddess1979_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiddess1979-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the notation of Indian <a href="R%C4%81ga" class="mw-redirect" title="Rāga"><i>rāga</i></a>, a solfege-like system called <a href="Swara" class="mw-redirect" title="Swara"><i>sargam</i></a> is used. As in Western solfege, there are names for the seven basic pitches of a major scale (<i>Shadja</i>, <i>Rishabha</i>, <i>Gandhara</i>, <i>Madhyama</i>, <i>Panchama</i>, <i>Dhaivata</i> and <i>Nishada</i>, usually shortened to <i>Sa</i>, <i>Re</i>, <i>Ga</i>, <i>Ma</i>, <i>Pa</i>, <i>Dha</i>, <i>Ni</i>). The tonic of any scale is named <i>Sa</i>, and the dominant <i>Pa</i>. <i>Sa</i> is fixed in any scale, and <i>Pa</i> is fixed at a fifth above it (a <a href="Pythagorean_tuning" title="Pythagorean tuning">Pythagorean</a> fifth rather than an <a href="Equal_temperament" title="Equal temperament">equal-tempered</a> fifth). These two notes are known as <i>achala swar</i> ('fixed notes').

</p><p>Each of the other five notes, <i>Re</i>, <i>Ga</i>, <i>Ma</i>, <i>Dha</i> and <i>Ni</i>, can take a 'regular' (<i>shuddha</i>) pitch, which is equivalent to its pitch in a standard major scale (thus, <i>shuddha Re</i>, the second degree of the scale, is a whole-step higher than <i>Sa</i>), or an altered pitch, either a half-step above or half-step below the shuddha pitch. <i>Re</i>, <i>Ga</i>, <i>Dha</i> and <i>Ni</i> all have altered partners that are a half-step lower (<i>komal</i> or "flat") (thus, <i>komal Re</i> is a half-step higher than <i>Sa</i>).

</p><p><i>Ma</i> has an altered partner that is a half-step higher (<i>teevra</i> or "sharp") (thus, <i>teevra Ma</i> is an augmented fourth above <i>Sa</i>). <i>Re</i>, <i>Ga</i>, <i>Ma</i>, <i>Dha</i> and <i>Ni</i> are called <span title="Hindi-language text"><i lang="hi-Latn">vikrut swar</i></span> ('movable notes'). In the written system of Indian notation devised by Ravi Shankar, the pitches are represented by Western letters. Capital letters are used for the <i>achala swar</i>, and for the higher variety of all the <i>vikrut swar</i>. Lowercase letters are used for the lower variety of the <i>vikrut swar</i>.

</p><p>Other systems exist for non-twelve-tone <a href="Equal_temperament" title="Equal temperament">equal temperament</a> and non-Western music, such as the Indian <i><a href="Swaralipi" title="Swaralipi">Swaralipi</a></i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Znamenny_Chant" class="mw-redirect" title="Znamenny Chant">Znamenny Chant</a></div>

<p>Znamenny Chant is a singing tradition used in the <a href="Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> which uses a "hook and banner" notation. Znamenny Chant is <a href="Unison" title="Unison">unison</a>, <a href="Melisma" title="Melisma">melismatic</a> <a href="Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgical</a> singing that has its own specific notation, called the <i>stolp</i> notation. The symbols used in the <i>stolp</i> notation are called <i><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">kryuki</i></span></i> (Russian: <span lang="ru">крюки</span>, 'hooks') or <i><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">znamyona</i></span></i> (Russian: <span lang="ru">знамёна</span>, 'banners'). Often the names of the signs are used to refer to the <i>stolp</i> notation. <i>Znamenny</i> melodies are part of a system, consisting of Eight Modes (intonation structures; called <i>glasy</i>); the melodies are characterized by fluency and well-balancedness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKholopov2003192_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKholopov2003192-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There exist several types of Znamenny Chant: the so-called <i>Stolpovoy</i>, <i>Malyj</i> (Little) and <i>Bolshoy</i> (Great) Znamenny Chant. Ruthenian Chant (<i><a href="Prostopinije" title="Prostopinije">Prostopinije</a></i>) is sometimes considered a sub-division of the Znamenny Chant tradition, with the <a href="Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Muscovite</a> Chant (Znamenny Chant proper) being the second branch of the same musical continuum.

</p><p>Znamenny Chants are not written with notes (the so-called linear notation), but with special signs, called <i>Znamëna</i> (Russian for "marks", "banners") or <i>Kryuki</i> ("hooks"), as some shapes of these signs resemble hooks. Each sign may include the following components: a large black hook or a black stroke, several smaller black 'points' and 'commas' and lines near the hook or crossing the hook. Some signs may mean only one note, some 2 to 4 notes, and some a whole melody of more than 10 notes with a complicated rhythmic structure. The <i>stolp</i> notation was developed in <a href="Kievan_Rus'" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> as an <a href="East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavic</a> refinement of the <a href="Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine</a> <a href="Neumatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neumatic">neumatic</a> musical notation.

</p><p>The most notable feature of this notation system is that it records transitions of the melody, rather than <a href="Musical_note" title="Musical note">notes</a>. The signs also represent the mood and indicate how this part of melody is to be sung (tempo, strength, devotion, meekness, etc.). Every sign has its own name and also features as a spiritual symbol. For example, there is a specific sign, called "little dove" (Russian: голубчик (<i>golubchik</i>)), which represents two rising sounds, but which is also a symbol of the <a href="Holy_Ghost" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Ghost">Holy Ghost</a>. Gradually, the system became more and more complicated. This system was also ambiguous, so that almost no one, except the most trained and educated singers, could sing an unknown melody at sight. The signs only helped to reproduce the melody, not coding it in an unambiguous way.

(See <a href="#Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>)

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Chinese_musical_notation" title="Chinese musical notation">Chinese musical notation</a></div>

<p>The earliest known examples of text referring to music in China are inscriptions on musical instruments found in the Tomb of the <a href="Marquess" title="Marquess">Marquis</a> Yi of Zeng (d. 433 BCE). Sets of 41 chimestones and 65 bells bore lengthy inscriptions concerning pitches, scales, and transposition. The bells still sound the pitches that their inscriptions refer to. Although no notated musical compositions were found, the inscriptions indicate that the system was sufficiently advanced to allow for musical notation. Two systems of pitch nomenclature existed, one for relative pitch and one for absolute pitch. For relative pitch, a <a href="Solmization" title="Solmization">solmization</a> system was used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley2004_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Gongche_notation" title="Gongche notation"><i>Gongche</i> notation</a> used Chinese characters for the names of the scale.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Shakuhachi_musical_notation" title="Shakuhachi musical notation">Shakuhachi musical notation</a> and <a href="Kunkunshi" title="Kunkunshi">Kunkunshi</a></div>

<p>Japanese music is highly diversified, and therefore requires various systems of notation. In Japanese <a href="Shakuhachi" title="Shakuhachi"><i>shakuhachi</i></a> music, for example, glissandos and timbres are often more significant than distinct pitches, whereas <a href="Taiko" title="Taiko"><i>taiko</i></a> notation focuses on discrete strokes.

</p><p><a href="Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyuan</a> <a href="Sanshin" title="Sanshin">sanshin</a> music uses <a href="Kunkunshi" title="Kunkunshi"><i>kunkunshi</i></a>, a notation system of <a href="Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a> with each character corresponding to a finger position on a particular string.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Gamelan_notation" title="Gamelan notation">Gamelan notation</a></div>

<p>Notation plays a relatively minor role in the oral traditions of <a href="Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. However, in <a href="Java" title="Java">Java</a> and <a href="Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, several systems were developed starting in the late 19th century, initially for archival purposes. Today the most widespread are cipher notations ("not <i>angka</i>" in the broadest sense) in which the pitches are represented with the numbers 1 to 7, with 1 corresponding to either the highest note of a particular octave, as in <a href="Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <a href="Gamelan" title="Gamelan">gamelan</a>, or the lowest, as in the <a href="Kepatihan_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepatihan notation"><i>kepatihan</i> notation</a> of <a href="Java" title="Java">Javanese</a> <a href="Gamelan" title="Gamelan">gamelan</a>.

</p><p>Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below each number. For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the <a href="Balungan" title="Balungan"><i>balungan</i></a>) and vocal parts (<a href="Gerong" title="Gerong"><i>gerongan</i></a>), although transcriptions of the elaborative instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching. Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece.

</p><p>The symbols used for drum notation (as well as the vocables represented) are highly variable from place to place and performer to performer. In addition to these current systems, two older notations used a kind of staff: the <a href="Surakarta" title="Surakarta">Solonese</a> script could capture the flexible rhythms of the <a href="Sindhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Sindhen"><i>pesinden</i></a> with a squiggle on a horizontal staff, while in <a href="Yogyakarta" title="Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta</a>, a ladder-like vertical staff allowed notation of the <i>balungan</i> by dots and also included important drum strokes. In Bali, there are a few books published of <a href="Gamelan_gender_wayang" title="Gamelan gender wayang"><i>Gamelan gender wayang</i></a> pieces employing alphabetical notation in the old Balinese script.

</p><p>Composers and scholars both Indonesian and foreign have also mapped the <a href="Slendro" title="Slendro"><i>slendro</i></a> and <a href="Pelog" title="Pelog"><i>pelog</i></a> <a href="Musical_tuning" title="Musical tuning">tuning</a> systems of gamelan onto the Western staff, with and without various symbols for <a href="Microtonal_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Microtonal music">microtones</a>. The Dutch composer <a href="Ton_de_Leeuw" title="Ton de Leeuw">Ton de Leeuw</a> also invented a three-line staff for his composition <i>Gending</i>. However, these systems do not enjoy widespread use.

</p><p>In the second half of the twentieth century, Indonesian musicians and scholars extended cipher notation to other oral traditions, and a <a href="Diatonic_and_chromatic" title="Diatonic and chromatic">diatonic scale</a> cipher notation has become common for notating Western-related genres (church hymns, popular songs, and so forth). Unlike the cipher notation for gamelan music, which uses a "fixed-Do" (that is, 1 always corresponds to the same pitch, within the natural variability of gamelan tuning), Indonesian diatonic cipher notation is "movable-Do" notation, so scores must indicate which pitch corresponds to the number 1 (for example, "1=C").

</p>

<div class="gallerytext">A short melody in <i>slendro</i> notated using the Surakarta method.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">The same notated using the Yogyakarta method or 'chequered notation'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">The same notated using Kepatihan notation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">The same approximated using Western notation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c7\/Western_gamelan_notation_slendro.mid\/Western_gamelan_notation_slendro.mid.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"Play"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Western gamelan notation slendro.mid"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/Western_gamelan_notation_slendro.mid/Western_gamelan_notation_slendro.mid.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">Play</span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable">ⓘ</sup></span></div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judea">Judea</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Hebrew cantillation</a></div>

<p>Ancient Jewish texts include a series of marks assigning musical cantillation notes. Known in Hebrew as <i>Ta'amim</i> and Yiddish as Trope, there are records of these marks from the 6th and 7th centuries, having been passed down as a tradition for Jewish prayers and texts. Traditionally a series of marks written above and around the accompanying Hebrew texts, Trope marks represent a short musical motif. Throughout the Jewish diaspora there are variations in the accompanying melodies. There are three main systems of Hebrew cantillation: the Babylonian System, the Palestinian System, and the Tiberian System.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_systems_and_practices">Other systems and practices</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cipher_notation">Cipher notation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Numbered_musical_notation" title="Numbered musical notation">Numbered musical notation</a></div>

<p>Cipher notation systems assigning Arabic numerals to the <a href="Major_scale" title="Major scale">major scale</a> degrees have been used at least since the Iberian organ tablatures of the 16th-century and include such exotic adaptations as <i><a href="Siffernotskrift" title="Siffernotskrift">Siffernotskrift</a></i>. The one most widely in use today is the Chinese <i>Jianpu</i>, discussed in the <a href="Numbered_musical_notation" title="Numbered musical notation">main article</a>. Numerals can also be assigned to different scale systems, as in the Javanese <i><a href="Kepatihan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepatihan">kepatihan</a></i> notation <a href="#Indonesia">described above</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solfège">Solfège</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Solf%C3%A8ge" title="Solfège">Solfège</a></div>

<p>Solfège is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale. In order, they are today: <i>Do</i>, <i>Re</i>, <i>Mi</i>, <i>Fa</i>, <i>Sol</i>, <i>La</i>, <i>Ti</i>, <i>Do<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> (for the octave). The classic variation is: <i>Do</i>, <i>Re</i>, <i>Mi</i>, <i>Fa</i>, <i>Sol</i>, <i>La</i>, <i>Si</i>, <i>Do<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>. The first Western system of functional names for the musical notes was introduced by <a href="Guido_of_Arezzo" title="Guido of Arezzo">Guido of Arezzo</a> (c. 991 – after 1033), using the beginning syllables of the first six musical lines of the Latin hymn <a href="Ut_queant_laxis" title="Ut queant laxis"><i>Ut queant laxis</i></a>. The original sequence was <i>Ut</i>, <i>Re</i>, <i>Mi</i>, <i>Fa</i>, <i>Sol</i>, <i>La</i>, where each verse started a scale note higher. "Ut" later became "Do". The equivalent syllables used in Indian music are: <i>Sa</i>, <i>Re</i>, <i>Ga</i>, <i>Ma</i>, <i>Pa</i>, <i>Dha</i>, <i>Ni</i>. See also: <a href="Solf%C3%A8ge" title="Solfège">solfège</a>, <a href="Swara" class="mw-redirect" title="Swara">sargam</a>, <a href="Kod%C3%A1ly_method#Hand_signs" title="Kodály method">Kodály hand signs</a>.

</p><p><a href="Tonic_sol-fa" title="Tonic sol-fa">Tonic sol-fa</a> is a type of notation using the initial letters of solfège.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letter_notation">Letter notation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Letter_notation" title="Letter notation">Letter notation</a></div>

<p>The notes of the 12-tone scale can be written by their letter names A–G, possibly with a trailing <a href="Accidental_(music)" title="Accidental (music)">accidental</a>, such as A<span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="music-sharp">♯</span></span> or B<span class="music-symbol" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"><span class="music-flat">♭</span></span>.

</p>

<p><a href="ABC_notation" title="ABC notation">ABC notation</a> is a compact format using plain text characters, readable by computers and by humans. More than 100,000 tunes are now transcribed in this format.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tablature">Tablature</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tablature" title="Tablature">Tablature</a></div>

<p>Tablature was first used in the <a href="Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Middle Ages</a> for organ music and later in the <a href="Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance</a> for <a href="Lute" title="Lute">lute</a> music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApel1961xxiii,_22_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApel1961xxiii,_22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most lute tablatures, a staff is used, but instead of pitch values, the lines of the staff represent the strings of the instrument. The <a href="Fret" title="Fret">frets</a> to finger are written on each line, indicated by letters or numbers. Rhythm is written separately with one or another variation of standard note values indicating the duration of the fastest moving part. Few seem to have remarked on the fact that tablature combines in one notation system both the physical and technical requirements of play (the lines and symbols on them and in relation to each other representing the actual performance actions) with the unfolding of the music itself (the lines of tablature taken horizontally represent the actual temporal unfolding of the music). In later periods, lute and guitar music was written with standard notation. Tablature caught interest again in the late 20th century for popular <a href="Guitar" title="Guitar">guitar</a> music and other fretted instruments, being easy to transcribe and share over the internet in <a href="ASCII_tab" title="ASCII tab">ASCII format</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piano-roll-based_notations">Piano-roll-based notations</h3></div>

<p>Some chromatic systems have been created taking advantage of the layout of black and white keys of the standard piano keyboard. The "staff" is most widely referred to as "<a href="Piano_roll#In_digital_audio_workstations" title="Piano roll">piano roll</a>", created by extending the black and white piano keys.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Klavar_notation">Klavar notation</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Klavarskribo" title="Klavarskribo">Klavarskribo</a></div>

<p><span title="Esperanto-language text"><i lang="eo">Klavarskribo</i></span> (sometimes shortened to <b>klavar</b>) is a music notation system that was introduced in 1931 by the <a href="Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutchman</a> Cornelis Pot. The name means "keyboard writing" in <a href="Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>. It differs from conventional music notation in a number of ways and is intended to be easily readable. Many klavar readers are from the Netherlands.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chromatic_staff_notations">Chromatic staff notations</h3></div>

<p>Over the past three centuries, hundreds of music notation systems have been proposed as alternatives to traditional Western music notation. Many of these systems seek to improve upon traditional notation by using a "chromatic staff" in which each of the 12 pitch classes has its own unique place on the staff. An example is Jacques-Daniel Rochat's <a href="Dodeka_music_notation" title="Dodeka music notation"><i>Dodeka</i> music notation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochat2018_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochat2018-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These notation systems do not require the use of standard key signatures, accidentals, or clef signs. They also represent interval relationships more consistently and accurately than traditional notation, e.g. major 3rds appear wider than minor 3rds. Many of these systems are described and illustrated in Gardner Read's <i>Source Book of Proposed Music Notation Reforms</i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphic_notation">Graphic notation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Graphic_notation_(music)" title="Graphic notation (music)">Graphic notation (music)</a></div>

<p>The term "graphic notation" refers to the contemporary use of non-traditional symbols and text to convey information about the performance of a piece of music. Composers such as <a href="Johanna_Beyer" title="Johanna Beyer">Johanna Beyer</a>, <a href="Christian_Wolff_(composer)" title="Christian Wolff (composer)">Christian Wolff</a>, <a href="Carmen_Barradas" title="Carmen Barradas">Carmen Barradas</a>, <a href="Earle_Brown" title="Earle Brown">Earle Brown</a>, <a href="Yoko_Ono" title="Yoko Ono">Yoko Ono</a>, <a href="Anthony_Braxton" title="Anthony Braxton">Anthony Braxton</a>, <a href="John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>, <a href="Morton_Feldman" title="Morton Feldman">Morton Feldman</a>, <a href="Cathy_Berberian" title="Cathy Berberian">Cathy Berberian</a>, <a href="Graciela_Castillo" title="Graciela Castillo">Graciela Castillo</a>, <a href="Krzysztof_Penderecki" title="Krzysztof Penderecki">Krzysztof Penderecki</a>, <a href="Cornelius_Cardew" title="Cornelius Cardew">Cornelius Cardew</a>, <a href="Pauline_Oliveros" title="Pauline Oliveros">Pauline Oliveros</a> and <a href="Roger_Reynolds" title="Roger Reynolds">Roger Reynolds</a> are among the early generation of composers who innovated forms of graphic notation beginning in the mid-twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book <i><a href="Notations" title="Notations">Notations</a></i>, edited by John Cage and <a href="Alison_Knowles" title="Alison Knowles">Alison Knowles</a> and published by Something Else Press in 1969, compiles many examples of this kind of notation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simplified_music_notation">Simplified music notation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Simplified_music_notation" title="Simplified music notation">Simplified music notation</a></div>

<p><a href="Simplified_Music_Notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified Music Notation">Simplified music notation</a> is an alternative form of musical notation designed to make <a href="Sight_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Sight reading">sight-reading</a> easier. It is based on <a href="Modern_musical_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern musical symbols">classical staff notation</a>, but incorporates <a href="Sharp_(music)" title="Sharp (music)">sharps</a> and <a href="Flat_(music)" title="Flat (music)">flats</a> into the shape of the note heads. <a href="Musical_note" title="Musical note">Notes</a> such as <a href="Sharp_(music)" title="Sharp (music)">double sharps</a> and <a href="Flat_(music)" title="Flat (music)">double flats</a> are written at the <a href="Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a> they are actually played at, but preceded by <a href="Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a> called "history signs" that show they have been <a href="Transposition_(music)" title="Transposition (music)">transposed</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modified_Stave_Notation">Modified Stave Notation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Modified_Stave_Notation" title="Modified Stave Notation">Modified Stave Notation</a></div>

<p><a href="Modified_Stave_Notation" title="Modified Stave Notation">Modified Stave Notation</a> (MSN) is an alternative way of notating music for people who cannot easily read ordinary musical notation even if it is enlarged.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parsons_code">Parsons code</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Parsons_code" title="Parsons code">Parsons code</a></div>

<p>Parsons code is used to encode music so that it can be easily searched.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Braille_music">Braille music</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></div>

<p>Braille music is a complete, well developed, and internationally accepted musical notation system that has symbols and notational conventions quite independent of print music notation. It is linear in nature, similar to a printed language and different from the two-dimensional nature of standard printed music notation. To a degree, Braille music resembles musical markup languages<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="MusicXML" title="MusicXML">MusicXML</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="Notation_Interchange_File_Format" title="Notation Interchange File Format">NIFF</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integer_notation">Integer notation</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Integer_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Integer notation">integer notation</a>, or the <a href="Integer" title="Integer">integer</a> model of pitch, all <a href="Pitch_class" title="Pitch class">pitch classes</a> and <a href="Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">intervals</a> between pitch classes are designated using the numbers 0 through 11.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rap_notation">Rap notation</h3></div>

<p>The standard form of rap notation is the "flow diagram", where rappers line up their lyrics underneath "beat numbers".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards200967_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200967-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hip-hop scholars also make use of the same flow diagrams that rappers use: the books <i>How to Rap</i> and <i>How to Rap 2</i> extensively use the diagrams to explain rap's triplets, flams, rests, rhyme schemes, runs of rhyme, and breaking rhyme patterns, among other techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards201353_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards201353-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar systems are used by musicologists Adam Krims in his book <i>Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrims200159–60_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrims200159–60-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Kyle Adams in his work on rap's flow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2009_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2009-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As rap usually revolves around a strong 4/4 beat,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards200969_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200969-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with certain syllables aligned to the beat, all the notational systems have a similar structure: they all have four beat numbers at the top of the diagram, so that syllables can be written in-line with the beat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards200969_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200969-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tin_Whistle_Fingering_Charts">Tin Whistle Fingering Charts</h3></div>

<p>It is used for six-hole woodwind instruments, basically for Irish folk songs. Tin whistle tabs are particularly useful for those unfamiliar with sheet music notation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Music_notation_on_computers">Music notation on computers</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Comparison_of_free_software_for_audio#Notation" title="Comparison of free software for audio">Open-source notation software</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unicode">Unicode</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Musical_Symbols_(Unicode_block)" title="Musical Symbols (Unicode block)">Musical Symbols Unicode block</a> encodes an extensive system of formal musical notation.

</p><p>The <a href="Miscellaneous_Symbols" title="Miscellaneous Symbols">Miscellaneous Symbols</a> block has a few of the more common symbols:

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><span class="monospaced">U+2669</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">♩</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">QUARTER NOTE</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+266A</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">♪</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">EIGHTH NOTE</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+266B</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">♫</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">BEAMED EIGHTH NOTES</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+266C</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">♬</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">BEAMED SIXTEENTH NOTES</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+266D</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">♭</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">MUSIC FLAT SIGN</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+266E</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">♮</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">MUSIC NATURAL SIGN</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+266F</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">♯</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">MUSIC SHARP SIGN</span></li></ul>

<p>The <a href="Miscellaneous_Symbols_and_Pictographs" title="Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs">Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs</a> block has three <a href="Emoji" title="Emoji">emoji</a> that may include depictions of musical notes:

</p>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+1F3A7</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">🎧</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">HEADPHONE</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+1F3B5</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">🎵</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">MUSICAL NOTE</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="monospaced">U+1F3B6</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">🎶</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">MULTIPLE MUSICAL NOTES</span></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software">Software</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">Scorewriter</a> and <a href="Comparison_of_scorewriters" title="Comparison of scorewriters">Comparison of scorewriters</a></div>

<p>Various computer programs have been developed for creating music notation (called "scorewriters" or "music notation software"). Music may also be stored in various digital file formats for purposes other than graphic notation output.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perspectives_of_musical_notation_in_composition_and_musical_performance">Perspectives of musical notation in composition and musical performance</h2></div>

<p>According to Philip Tagg and <a href="Richard_Middleton_(musicologist)" title="Richard Middleton (musicologist)">Richard Middleton</a>, musicology and to a degree European-influenced musical practice suffer from a "notational centricity", a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETagg197928–32_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETagg197928–32-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1990104–106_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1990104–106-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A variety of 20th- and 21st-century composers have dealt with this problem, either by adapting standard Western musical notation or by using graphic notation. These include <a href="George_Crumb" title="George Crumb">George Crumb</a>, <a href="Luciano_Berio" title="Luciano Berio">Luciano Berio</a>, <a href="Krzysztof_Penderecki" title="Krzysztof Penderecki">Krzysztof Penderecki</a>, <a href="Earle_Brown" title="Earle Brown">Earl Brown</a>, <a href="John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>, <a href="Witold_Lutoslawski" class="mw-redirect" title="Witold Lutoslawski">Witold Lutoslawski</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1973[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1973[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECogan1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECogan1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_musical_symbols" title="List of musical symbols">List of musical symbols</a> of modern notation.</li>

<li><a href="Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Hebrew cantillation</a></li>

<li><a href="Helmholtz_pitch_notation" title="Helmholtz pitch notation">Helmholtz pitch notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Colored_music_notation" title="Colored music notation">Colored music notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_movement_in_music_reading" title="Eye movement in music reading">Eye movement in music reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Guido_of_Arezzo" title="Guido of Arezzo">Guido of Arezzo</a>, inventor of modern musical notation</li>

<li><a href="History_of_music_publishing" title="History of music publishing">History of music publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_scorewriters" title="List of scorewriters">List of scorewriters</a></li>

<li><a href="Mensural_notation" title="Mensural notation">Mensural notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhythmic_mode" title="Rhythmic mode">Modal notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_engraving" title="Music engraving">Music engraving</a>, drawing music notation for the purpose of mechanical reproduction</li>

<li><a href="Music_OCR" class="mw-redirect" title="Music OCR">Music OCR</a>, the application of optical character recognition to interpret sheet music</li>

<li><a href="Neume" title="Neume">Neume</a> (<a href="Plainchant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plainchant">plainchant</a> notation)</li>

<li><a href="Pitch_class" title="Pitch class">Pitch class</a></li>

<li><a href="Rastrum" title="Rastrum">Rastrum</a>, a five-pointed writing implement used to draw parallel staff lines across a blank piece of sheet music</li>

<li><a href="Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">Scorewriter</a></li>

<li><a href="Semasiography" title="Semasiography">Semasiography</a></li>

<li><a href="Sight-reading" title="Sight-reading">Sight-reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">Sheet music</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_unit_box_system" title="Time unit box system">Time unit box system</a>, a notation system useful for polyrhythms</li>

<li><a href="Tongan_music_notation" title="Tongan music notation">Tongan music notation</a>, a subset of standard music notation</li>

<li><a href="Tonnetz" title="Tonnetz">Tonnetz</a></li>

<li><a href="Znamenny_chant" title="Znamenny chant">Znamenny chant</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giorgio Buccellati, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://128.97.6.202/urkeshpublic/music.htm">Hurrian Music</a>", associate editor and webmaster Federico A. Buccellati Urkesh website (n.p.: IIMAS, 2003).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilmerCivil1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilmerCivil1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKilmerCivil1986">Kilmer & Civil (1986)</a>, p. .</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilmer1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilmer1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2009]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2009)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKilmer1965">Kilmer (1965)</a>, p. .</span>

</li>

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFL1992" class="citation journal cs1">L, West, M (1 October 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/47041">"Ancient Greek Music"</a>. <i>OUP Academic</i>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fo">10.1093/o</a> (inactive 1 July 2025).</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Printed chant books with a modern simplified version of round notation were published since the 1820s and also used in Greece and Constantinople and in Old Church Slavonic translation within the slavophone Balkans and later on the territory of the autocephalous foundation of <a href="National_awakening_of_Bulgaria" title="National awakening of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Only one Greek asmatikon written during the 14th century (Kastoria, Metropolitan Library, Ms. 8) preserved this gestic notation based on the practice of cheironomia, and transcribed the gestic signs into sticherarion notation in a second row. For more about kondakar, see <a href="#CITEREFFlorosMoran2009">Floros & Moran (2009)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFMyers1998">Myers (1998)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">After the decline of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite during the fourth crusade (1201), its books <i>kontakarion</i> and <i>asmatikon</i> had been written in monastic scriptoria using Byzantine round notation. For more, see <a href="Byzantine_music#The_end_of_the_cathedral_rite_in_Constantinople" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine music</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#CITEREFAlexandru2000">Alexandru (2000)</a> for a historical discussion of the great signs and their modern interpretations.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrysanthos183233-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrysanthos183233_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChrysanthos1832">Chrysanthos (1832)</a>, p. 33.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChrysanthos1832">Chrysanthos (1832)</a> made a difference between his monosyllabic and the traditional polysyllabic <i>parallage.</i></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToussaint20043-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToussaint20043_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToussaint2004">Toussaint (2004)</a>, 3.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHoppin1978" class="citation book cs1">Hoppin, Richard H. (1978). <i>Medieval music</i>. The Norton introduction to music history (1st ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-393-09090-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsidore_of_Seville200695-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsidore_of_Seville200695_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsidore_of_Seville2006">Isidore of Seville (2006)</a>, p. 95.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZapke2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2010]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="A_complex_issue,_to_be_sure,_but_this_book_has_480_pages._Surely_it_does_not_take_that_long_to_demonstrate_that_nothing_at_all_has_been_deciphered.&#32;(May_2010)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZapke2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2010]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="A_complex_issue,_to_be_sure,_but_this_book_has_480_pages._Surely_it_does_not_take_that_long_to_demonstrate_that_nothing_at_all_has_been_deciphered.&#32;(May_2010)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZapke2007">Zapke (2007)</a>, p. .</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen2002628-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen2002628_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChristensen2002">Christensen (2002)</a>, p. 628.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOtten1910-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOtten1910_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOtten1910">Otten (1910)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNaught189343-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNaught189343_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNaught1893">McNaught (1893)</a>, p. 43.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallNeitzBattani2003100-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallNeitzBattani2003100_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHallNeitzBattani2003">Hall, Neitz & Battani (2003)</a>, p. 100.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurray199445-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurray199445_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurray1994">Murray (1994)</a>, p. 45.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2011">Gnanadesikan (2011)</a>, p. .</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.donga.com/List/3/all/26/251893/1">"Gukak"</a>. <i>The DONG-A ILBO</i>. dongA.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-brunonettle-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brunonettle_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruno Nettl, Ruth M. Stone, James Porter and Timothy Rice (1999), The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Routledge, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0824049461</bdi>, pages 242–245</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">KR Norman (1979), Sāmavedic Chant by Wayne Howard (Book Review), Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3, page 524;

Wayne Howard (1977), Samavedic Chant, Yale University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0300019568</bdi></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhandarkar1913–1914-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhandarkar1913–1914_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBhandarkar1913–1914">Bhandarkar (1913–1914)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiddess1979-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiddess1979_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiddess1979">Widdess (1979)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKholopov2003192-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKholopov2003192_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKholopov2003">Kholopov 2003</a>, 192.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley2004_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagley2004">Bagley (2004)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindsay199243–45_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindsay1992">Lindsay (1992)</a>, pp. 43–45.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.music-notation.info/en/formats/abc.html">"abc"</a>. <i>www.music-notation.info</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEApel1961xxiii,_22-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApel1961xxiii,_22_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFApel1961">Apel (1961)</a>, pp. xxiii, 22.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dodekamusic.com/">"Dodeka: the fastest way to learn to play music"</a>. <i>Dodeka Music</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochat2018-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochat2018_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRochat2018">Rochat (2018)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/publications/scores/intro/"><i>The Scores Project: Introduction</i></a>. 5 May 2025. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-60606-936-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040624055626/http://musicmarkup.info/scope/markuplanguages.html">"musicmarkup.info"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.musicmarkup.info/scope/markuplanguages.html">the original</a> on 24 June 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2004</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2003" class="citation web cs1">Stewart, Darin (1 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110926232651/http://emusician.com/ar/emusic_xml_music/">"XML for Music"</a>. <i>emusician.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://emusician.com/ar/emusic_xml_music/">the original</a> on 26 September 2011.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200967-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards200967_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2009">Edwards (2009)</a>, p. 67.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards201353-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards201353_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2013">Edwards (2013)</a>, p. 53.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrims200159–60-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrims200159–60_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrims2001">Krims (2001)</a>, pp. 59–60.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2009-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2009_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams2009">Adams (2009)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200969-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards200969_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards200969_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2009">Edwards (2009)</a>, p. 69.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1990104–106-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1990104–106_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddleton1990">Middleton (1990)</a>, pp. 104–106.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1973[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1973[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPierce1973">Pierce (1973)</a>, p. .</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECogan1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECogan1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2018]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2018)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCogan1976">Cogan (1976)</a>, p. .</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 36em;">

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAdams2009" class="citation journal cs1">Adams, Kyle (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.09.15.5/mto.09.15.5.adams.html">"On the Metrical Techniques of Flow in Rap Music"</a>. <i>Music Theory Online</i>. <b>5</b> (9)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAlexandru2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Alexandru, Maria (2000). <i>Studie über die 'großen Zeichen' der byzantinischen musikalischen Notation unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Periode vom Ende des 12. bis Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> [<i>Study of the 'great signs' of Byzantine musical notation with special reference to the period from the end of the 12th to the beginning of the 19th century</i>] (in German). Copenhagen: Københavns Universitet, Det Humanistiske Fakultet.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFApel1961" class="citation book cs1">Apel, Willi (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/notationofpolyph00apel"><i>The Notation of Polyphonic Music, 900–1600</i></a>. Publications of the Mediaeval Academy of America, no. 38 (5th revised and with commentary ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Mediaeval Academy of America.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBagley2004" class="citation speech cs1">Bagley, Robert (26 October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080609090628/http://www.britac.ac.uk/events/2004/abstracts/2004-bagley.htm"><i>The Prehistory of Chinese Music Theory</i></a> (Speech). Elsley Zeitlyn Lecture on Chinese Archaeology and Culture. British Academy's Autumn 2004 Lecture Programme. London: British Academy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britac.ac.uk:80/events/2004/abstracts/2004-bagley.cfm">the original</a> on 9 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBhandarkar1913–1914" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="D._R._Bhandarkar" class="mw-redirect" title="D. R. Bhandarkar">Bhandarkar, D. R.</a> (1913–1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.48788/page/n297/">"28. Kudimiyamalai inscription on music"</a>. In <a href="Sten_Konow" title="Sten Konow">Konow, Sten</a> (ed.). <i><a href="Epigraphia_Indica" title="Epigraphia Indica">Epigraphia Indica</a></i>. Vol. 12. pp. <span class="nowrap">226–</span>237.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChristensen2002" class="citation book cs1">Christensen, Thomas (2002). <i>The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory</i>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChrysanthos1832" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a href="Chrysanthos_of_Madytos" title="Chrysanthos of Madytos">Chrysanthos of Madytos</a> (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoretikonmegat00chry"><i>Theoritikón méga tís Mousikís</i> <bdi lang="el">Θεωρητικὸν μέγα τῆς Μουσικῆς</bdi></a> [<i>Great Theory of Music</i>]. Tergeste: Michele Weis<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCogan1976" class="citation book cs1">Cogan, Robert (1976). <i>Sonic Design The Nature of Sound and Music</i>. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-13822726-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2009" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Paul (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howtorapartscien0000edwa"><i>How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC</i></a></span>. foreword by Kool G. Rap. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2013" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Paul (2013). <i>How to Rap 2: Advanced Flow and Delivery Techniques</i>. foreword by Gift of Gab. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFlorosMoran2009" class="citation book cs1">Floros, Constantin; Moran, Neil K. (2009). <i>The Origins of Russian Music: Introduction to the Kondakarian Notation</i>. Frankfurt am Main etc.: Peter Lang. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783631595534</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGallope2025" class="citation book cs1">Gallope, Michael, Natilee Harren, and John Hicks (2025). <i>The Scores Project: Experimental Notation in Music, Art, Poetry, and Dance, 1950–1975</i>. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781606069349</bdi>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/publications/scores/">www<wbr>.getty<wbr>.edu<wbr>/publications<wbr>/scores<wbr>/</a></span></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGnanadesikan2011" class="citation book cs1">Gnanadesikan, Amalia E. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nlEPhP900-UC&q=%22A+unique+style+of+Korean+musical+notation+developed+under+his+reign%2C+the+first+East+Asian+system+to+fully+represent+rhythm.%22&pg=PT172"><i>The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781444359855</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite>*<cite id="CITEREFHallNeitzBattani2003" class="citation book cs1">Hall, John; Neitz, Mary Jo; Battani, Marshall (2003). <i>Sociology on Culture</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-28484-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFIsidore_of_Seville2006" class="citation book cs1">Isidore of Seville (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pot-pourri.fltr.ucl.ac.be/files/AClassftP/Textes/ISIDORUS/Etymologie/B1N8PWGetQy.pdf"><i>The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Translated with introduction and notes by Stephen A. Barney, W. J. Lewis, J. A. Beach, and Oliver Berghof, with the collaboration of Muriel Hall. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-83749-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKholopov2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Yuri_Kholopov" title="Yuri Kholopov">Kholopov, Yuri</a> (2003). <i>Гармония. Теоретический курс</i> [<i>Harmony: A Theoretical Course</i>] (2nd ed.). Moscow; Saint Petersburg: Lan. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>5-8114-0516-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKilmer1965" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (1965). "The Strings of Musical Instruments: Their Names, Numbers, and Significance". In Güterbock, Hans G.; Jacobsen, Thorkild (eds.). <i>Studies in Honor of Benno Landsberger on His Seventy-fifth Birthday, April 21, 1965</i>. Assyriological Studies. Vol. 16. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">261–</span>268.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKilmerCivil1986" class="citation journal cs1">Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn; Civil, Miguel (1986). "Old Babylonian Musical Instructions Relating to Hymnody". <i>Journal of Cuneiform Studies</i>. <b>38</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">94–</span>98. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1359953">10.2307/1359953</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1359953">1359953</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163942248">163942248</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKrims2001" class="citation book cs1">Krims, Adam (2001). <i>Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity</i>. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLindsay1992" class="citation book cs1">Lindsay, Jennifer (1992). <i>Javanese Gamelan</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-588582-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcNaught1893" class="citation journal cs1">McNaught, W. G. (January 1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nNYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA35">"The History and Uses of the Sol-fa Syllables"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Musical Association</i>. <b>19</b>: <span class="nowrap">35–</span>51. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjrma%2F19.1.35">10.1093/jrma/19.1.35</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0958-8442">0958-8442</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMiddleton1990" class="citation book cs1">Middleton, Richard (1990). <i>Studying Popular Music</i>. Philadelphia: Open University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-335-15275-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMurray1994" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Chris (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarts00newyrich"><i>Dictionary of the Arts</i></a></span>. New York: Facts on File. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8160-3205-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMyers1998" class="citation journal cs1">Myers, Gregory (1998). "The medieval Russian Kondakar and the choirbook from Kastoria: a palaeographic study in Byzantine and Slavic musical relations". <i>Plainsong and Medieval Music</i>. <b>7</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">21–</span>46. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0961137100001406">10.1017/S0961137100001406</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163125078">163125078</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOtten1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Otten, J. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07065a.htm">"Guido of Arezzo"</a>. <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPierce1973" class="citation book cs1">Pierce, Brent (1973). <i>New Choral Notation (A Handbook)</i>. New York: Walton Music Corporation.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRochat2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rochat, Jacques-Daniel (2018). <i>Dodeka: la révolution musicale</i> (in French). Chexbres: Crea 7. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9782970127505</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1078658738">1078658738</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTagg1979" class="citation book cs1">Tagg, Philip (1979). <i>Kojak—50 Seconds of Television Music: Toward the Analysis of Affect in Popular Music</i>. Skrifter från Musikvetenskapliga Institutionen, Göteborg 2. Göteborg: Musikvetenskapliga Institutionen, Göteborgs Universitet. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>91-7222-235-2</bdi>.</cite> English translation of "Kojak—50 sekunders tv-musik".</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFToussaint2004" class="citation book cs1">Toussaint, Godfried (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120707184208/http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/research/reports/2004/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf"><i>A Comparison of Rhythmic Similarity Measures</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Technical Report SOCS-TR-2004.6. Montréal: School of Computer Science, McGill University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/research/reports/2004/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 July 2012.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWest1994" class="citation journal cs1">West, Martin Litchfield (May 1994). "The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts". <i>Music & Letters</i>. <b>75</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">161–</span>179. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fml%2F75.2.161">10.1093/ml/75.2.161</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWiddess1979" class="citation journal cs1">Widdess, D. R (1979). "The Kudumiyamalai inscription: a source of early Indian music in notation". <i>Musica Asiatica</i>. <b>2</b>. Oxford University Press: <span class="nowrap">115–</span>150.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZapke2007" class="citation book cs1">Zapke, Susana, ed. (2007). <i>Hispania Vetus: Musical-Liturgical Manuscripts from Visigothic Origins to the Franco-Roman Transition (9th–12th Centuries)</i>. Foreword by Anscario M Mundó. Bilbao: Fundación BBVA. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-84-96515-50-5</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gayou, Évelyne (August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cec.concordia.ca/econtact/12_4/Gayou_transcrire.html">"Transcrire les musiques électroacoustiques"</a>. <i>EContact!</i> (in French). <b>12</b> (4 <i>Perspectives on the Electroacoustic Work / Perspectives sur l'œuvre électroacoustique</i>). Montréal: <a href="Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community" title="Canadian Electroacoustic Community">Canadian Electroacoustic Community</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Gould, Elaine (2011). <i><a href="Behind_Bars%3A_The_Definitive_Guide_to_Music_Notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Behind Bars: The Definitive Guide to Music Notation">Behind Bars: The Definitive Guide to Music Notation</a></i>. London: Faber Music.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Hall, Rachael (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120616225617/http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/Poets/arcadia.pdf"><i>Math for Poets and Drummers</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="Saint_Joseph's_University" title="Saint Joseph's University">Saint Joseph's University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/Poets/arcadia.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2006</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation journal cs1">Karakayali, Nedim (2010). "Two Assemblages of Cultural Transmission: Musicians, Political Actors and Educational Techniques in the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe". <i><a href="Journal_of_Historical_Sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Historical Sociology">Journal of Historical Sociology</a></i>. <b>23</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">343–</span>71. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-6443.2010.01377.x">10.1111/j.1467-6443.2010.01377.x</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11693%2F22234">11693/22234</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation conference cs1">Lieberman, David (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1174472">"Game Enhanced Music Manuscript"</a>. In Y Tina Lee; Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin; Diego Gutierrez; Norhaida Mohd Suaib (eds.). <i>Graphite '06: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques in Australasia and South East Asia, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), 29 November–2 December 2006</i>. 4th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques in Australasia and South East Asia. New York: ACM Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">245–</span>50. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-59593-564-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="Gardner_Read" title="Gardner Read">Read, Gardner</a> (1978). <i>Modern Rhythmic Notation</i>. Victor Gollance.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Read, Gardner (1987). <i>Source Book of Proposed Music Notation Reforms</i>. Greenwood Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation journal cs1">Reisenweaver, Anna (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/4">"Guido of Arezzo and His Influence on Music Learning"</a>. <i>Musical Offerings</i>. <b>3</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">37–</span>59. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15385%2Fjmo.2012.3.1.4">10.15385/jmo.2012.3.1.4</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Savas, Savas I. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.byzantinechant.org/Resources/SavasSavas_combined%20%28small%29.pdf"><i>Byzantine Music in Theory and Practice</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Boston: Hercules. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-916586-24-3</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schneider, Albrecht (1987). "Musik, Sound, Sprache, Schrift: Transkription und Notation in der Vergleichenden Musikwissenschaft und Musikethnologie" [Music, sound, language, writing: Transcription and notation in comparative musicology and music ethnology]. <i>Zeitschrift für Semiotik</i> (in German). <b>9</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">317–</span>43.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Sotorrio, José A. (1997). <i>Bilinear Music Notation: A New Notation System for the Modern Musician</i>. Spectral Music. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9548498-2-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Stone, Kurt (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/musicnotationint0000ston"><i>Music Notation in the Twentieth Century: A Practical Guidebook</i></a></span>. W. W. Norton.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation journal cs1">Strayer, Hope R. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol4/iss1/1">"From Neumes to Notes: The Evolution of Music Notation"</a>. <i>Musical Offerings</i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>14. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15385%2Fjmo.2013.4.1.1">10.15385/jmo.2013.4.1.1</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Tortiglione, Paolo (2012). <i>Semiography and Semiology of Contemporary Music</i>. Milan: Rugginenti. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9788876656163</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="Habib_Hassan_Touma" title="Habib Hassan Touma">Touma, Habib Hassan</a> (1996). <i>The Music of the Arabs</i> (book with accompanying CD recording). Translated by Laurie Schwartz (new expanded ed.). Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-931340-88-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Williams, Charles Francis Abdy (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofnotation00willuoft"><i>The Story of Notation</i></a>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.g-culture.org/ioannis/tag/byzantine-music-notation/">Byzantine Music Notation</a>. Contains a Guide to Byzantine Music Notation (neumes).</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://253.ccarh.org">CCARH—Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities</a> Information on Stanford University Course on music representation. Links page shows examples of different notations.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070311024006/http://www.musicmarkup.info/">Music Markup Language</a>. XML-based language for music notation.</li>

<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musical Notation"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Musical_Notation">"Musical Notation" </a></span>. <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. <span class="nowrap">96–</span>87.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.senzatempo.de/ston2012070100.html">Synopsis of Musical Notation Encyclopedias (An index from topics of CWN into the books of Gould, Vinci, Wanske, Stone and Read.)</a></li>

<li>Gehrkens, Karl Wilson <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19499"><i>Music Notation and Terminology</i></a>. Project Gutenberg.</li>

<li>Gilbert, Nina. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ninagilbert.googlepages.com/British.html">Glossary of U.S. and British English musical terms</a>." Posted 17 June 1998; updated 7 September 2000.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://silpayamanant.wordpress.com/timeline-of-music-notation/">Timeline of Music Notation</a>. Published 4 February 2017; updated 30 July 2025, 1507 entries.</li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Musical_notation357" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Musical_notation357" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Staff_(music)" title="Staff (music)">Staff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Abbreviation_(music)" title="Abbreviation (music)">Abbreviation</a></li>

<li><a href="Dal_segno" title="Dal segno">Dal segno</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_signature" title="Key signature">Key signature</a></li>

<li><a href="Ledger_line" title="Ledger line">Ledger line</a></li>

<li><a href="Ossia" title="Ossia">Ossia</a></li>

<li><a href="Scale_(music)" title="Scale (music)">Scale</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehearsal_letter" title="Rehearsal letter">Rehearsal letter</a></li>

<li><a href="Repeat_sign" title="Repeat sign">Repeat sign</a></li>

<li><a href="Tempo" title="Tempo">Tempo</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_signature" title="Time signature">Time signature</a></li>

<li><a href="Transposition_(music)" title="Transposition (music)">Transposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Transposing_instrument" title="Transposing instrument">Transposing instrument</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Musical_note" title="Musical note">Musical notes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accidental_(music)" title="Accidental (music)">Accidental</a>

<li><a href="Natural_(music)" title="Natural (music)">natural</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharp_(music)" title="Sharp (music)">sharp</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dotted_note" title="Dotted note">Dotted note</a></li>

<li><a href="Grace_note" title="Grace note">Grace note</a></li>

<li><a href="Note_value" title="Note value">Note value</a>

<li><a href="Notehead" title="Notehead">Notehead</a></li>

<li><a href="Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacet" title="Tacet">Tacet</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuplet" title="Tuplet">Tuplet</a></li>

<li><a href="Tremolo" title="Tremolo">Tremolo</a></li>

<li><a href="Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">Interval</a></li>

<li><a href="Helmholtz_pitch_notation" title="Helmholtz pitch notation">Helmholtz pitch notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Letter_notation" title="Letter notation">Letter notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_pitch_notation" title="Scientific pitch notation">Scientific pitch notation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Articulation_(music)" title="Articulation (music)">Articulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accent_(music)" title="Accent (music)">Accent</a></li>

<li><a href="Caesura" title="Caesura">Caesura</a></li>

<li><a href="Damping_(music)" title="Damping (music)">Damping</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamics_(music)" title="Dynamics (music)">Dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermata" title="Fermata">Fermata</a></li>

<li><a href="Fingering_(music)" title="Fingering (music)">Fingering</a></li>

<li><a href="Legato" title="Legato">Legato</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcato" title="Marcato">Marcato</a></li>

<li><a href="Ornament_(music)" title="Ornament (music)">Ornament</a>

<ul><li><a href="Appoggiatura" title="Appoggiatura">Appoggiatura</a></li>

<li><a href="Glissando" title="Glissando">Glissando</a></li>

<li><a href="Grace_note" title="Grace note">Grace note</a></li>

<li><a href="Mordent" title="Mordent">Mordent</a></li>

<li><a href="Slide_(musical_ornament)" title="Slide (musical ornament)">Slide</a></li>

<li><a href="Trill_(music)" title="Trill (music)">Trill</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Portato" title="Portato">Portato</a></li>

<li><a href="Staccato" title="Staccato">Staccato</a></li>

<li><a href="Tenuto" title="Tenuto">Tenuto</a></li>

<li><a href="Tonguing" title="Tonguing">Tonguing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">Sheet music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_music_publishing" title="History of music publishing">History of music publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_engraving" title="Music engraving">Music engraving</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_publisher" title="Music publisher">Music publisher</a></li>

<li><a href="Scorewriter" title="Scorewriter">Scorewriter</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></li>

<li><a href="Chord_chart" title="Chord chart">Chord chart</a></li>

<li><a href="Chord_diagram_(music)" title="Chord diagram (music)">Chord diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_music" title="Eye music">Eye music</a></li>

<li><a href="Figured_bass" title="Figured bass">Figured bass</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphic_notation_(music)" title="Graphic notation (music)">Graphic notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Lead_sheet" title="Lead sheet">Lead sheet</a></li>

<li><a href="Nashville_Number_System" title="Nashville Number System">Nashville Number System</a></li>

<li><a href="Numbered_musical_notation" title="Numbered musical notation">Numbered musical notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Klavarskribo" title="Klavarskribo">Klavarskribo</a></li>

<li><a href="Tablature" title="Tablature">Tablature</a></li>

<li><a href="Parsons_code" title="Parsons code">Parsons</a></li>

<li><a href="Percussion_notation" title="Percussion notation">Percussion notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Simplified_music_notation" title="Simplified music notation">Simplified</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_musical_notation" title="Chinese musical notation">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Ekphonetic_notation" title="Ekphonetic notation">Ekphonetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Gamelan_notation" title="Gamelan notation">Gamelan</a></li>

<li><a href="Kunkunshi" title="Kunkunshi">Kunkunshi</a></li>

<li><a href="Neume" title="Neume">Neume</a></li>

<li><a href="Swaralipi" title="Swaralipi">Swaralipi</a></li>

<li><a href="Shakuhachi_musical_notation" title="Shakuhachi musical notation">Shakuhachi</a></li>

<li><a href="Znamenny_chant#Notation" title="Znamenny chant">Znamenny</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mensural_notation" title="Mensural notation">Mensural notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_stand" title="Music stand">Music stand</a></li>

<li><a href="Absolute_pitch" title="Absolute pitch">Perfect pitch</a></li>

<li><a href="Sight-reading" title="Sight-reading">Sight-reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcription_(music)" title="Transcription (music)">Transcription</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"></span></span> <a href="List_of_musical_symbols" title="List of musical symbols">List of musical symbols</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category:Musical notation</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_classical_music777" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Western_classical_music777" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Classical_music" title="Classical music">Western classical music</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Definition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Art_music" title="Art music">Art music</a></li>

<li><a href="Dates_of_classical_music_eras" title="Dates of classical music eras">Dates of eras</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major periods and eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Early_music" title="Early music">Early music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance</a>

<ul><li><a href="Transition_from_Renaissance_to_Baroque_in_instrumental_music" title="Transition from Renaissance to Baroque in instrumental music">Transition to Baroque</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Common_practice_period" title="Common practice period">Common practice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baroque_music" title="Baroque music">Baroque</a>

<ul><li><a href="Galant_music" title="Galant music">Galant</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Empfindsamkeit_(music)" title="Empfindsamkeit (music)">Empfindsamkeit</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">Classical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Transition_from_Classical_to_Romantic_music" title="Transition from Classical to Romantic music">Transition to Romantic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Romantic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post-romanticism</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Neue_Musik" title="Neue Musik">New music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Modernism_(music)" title="Modernism (music)">Modernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Contemporary_classical_music" title="Contemporary classical music">Contemporary</a></li>

<li><a href="20th-century_classical_music" title="20th-century classical music">20th-century</a></li>

<li><a href="21st-century_classical_music" class="mw-redirect" title="21st-century classical music">21st-century</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_music_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical music in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Brazil#Art_music" title="Music of Brazil">Brazil</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_classical_music_in_Porto_Alegre" title="History of classical music in Porto Alegre">Porto Alegre</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_classical_music" title="Canadian classical music">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="French_classical_music" title="French classical music">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Germany#Classical_music" title="Music of Germany">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_music_in_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical music in Ireland">Ireland</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_classical_music" title="Italian classical music">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_music_in_Kosovo" title="Classical music in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_classical_music" title="Russian classical music">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_music_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Classical music of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Classical_music_of_Birmingham" title="Classical music of Birmingham">Birmingham</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Classical_music_of_the_United_States" title="Classical music of the United States">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Students by teacher</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Performance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Concert" title="Concert">Concert</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_classical_music_concerts_with_an_unruly_audience_response" title="List of classical music concerts with an unruly audience response">Unruly audience response</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Conducting" title="Conducting">Conducting</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_ensemble" title="Musical ensemble">Musical ensemble</a></li>

<li><a href="Orchestra" title="Orchestra">Orchestra</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Avant-garde_music" title="Avant-garde music">Avant-garde</a></li>

<li><a href="Baroque_pop" title="Baroque pop">Baroque pop</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_music_blog" title="Classical music blog">Classical music blog</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_music" title="Experimental music">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Light_music" title="Light music">Light music</a></li>

<li><a href="New-age_music" title="New-age music">New-age music</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressive_music" title="Progressive music">Progressive music</a></li>

<li><a href="Soundtrack" title="Soundtrack">Soundtrack</a>

<ul><li><a href="Film_score" title="Film score">Film score</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_game_music" title="Video game music">Video game music</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Third_stream" title="Third stream">Third stream</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_classical_and_art_music_traditions" title="List of classical and art music traditions">Worldwide traditions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Classical_music_lists" title="Classical music lists">Lists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_classical_music_genres" title="List of classical music genres">Genres</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_classical_music_composers_by_era" title="List of classical music composers by era">Composers by era</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_classical_music_festivals" title="List of classical music festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_classical_music" title="Outline of classical music">Outline</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3AClassical_music" title="Portal:Classical music">Portal</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> WikiProject</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Music974" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Music974" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Music" title="Music">Music</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_music" title="History of music">History of music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_music" title="Ancient music">Ancient</a></li>

<li><a href="Dance_music" title="Dance music">Dance</a></li>

<li><a href="Martial_music" title="Martial music">Martial</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_music" title="Religious music">Religious</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_music_in_the_biblical_period" title="History of music in the biblical period">Biblical</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Secular_music" title="Secular music">Secular</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Art_music" title="Art music">Art music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Klasik" title="Klasik">Afghan classical music—Klasik</a></li>

<li><a href="Andalusi_classical_music" title="Andalusi classical music">Andalusi classical music</a></li>

<li><a href="Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Arabic music</a></li>

<li><a href="Mugham" title="Mugham">Azerbaijani Mugham</a></li>

<li><a href="Mah%C4%81g%C4%ABta" title="Mahāgīta">Burmese classical music—Mahāgīta</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinpeat" title="Pinpeat">Cambodian ceremonial music—Pinpeat</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_traditional_music" title="Chinese traditional music">Chinese traditional music</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine music</a></li>

<li><a href="Gamelan" title="Gamelan">Indonesian art music—Gamelan</a></li>

<li><a href="Gagaku" title="Gagaku">Japanese court music—Gagaku</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_court_music" title="Korean court music">Korean court music</a></li>

<li><a href="Lao_classical_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao classical music">Lao classical music</a></li>

<li><a href="Griot" title="Griot">Mandé art music</a></li>

<li><a href="Ottoman_music" title="Ottoman music">Ottoman music</a></li>

<li><a href="Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Persian classical music</a></li>

<li><a href="Kundiman" title="Kundiman">Philippine art songs—Kundiman</a></li>

<li><a href="Pibroch" title="Pibroch">Scottish Ceòl Mór</a></li>

<li><a href="Kandyan_dance" title="Kandyan dance">Kandyan dance of Sri Lanka</a></li>

<li><a href="Piphat" title="Piphat">Thai classical music—Piphat</a></li>

<li><a href="Nh%C3%A3_nh%E1%BA%A1c" title="Nhã nhạc">Vietnam imperial court music—Nhã nhạc</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_music" title="Classical music">Western classical music</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vernacular_music" title="Vernacular music">Vernacular<br>music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Circus_music" title="Circus music">Circus music</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_music" title="Folk music">Folk music</a></li>

<li><a href="Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a></li>

<li><a href="Country_music" title="Country music">Country music</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_music" title="Electronic music">Electronic music</a></li>

<li><a href="Hip_hop_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip hop music">Hip hop music</a></li>

<li><a href="Pop_music" title="Pop music">Pop music</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressive_music" title="Progressive music">Progressive music</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychedelic_music" title="Psychedelic music">Psychedelic music</a></li>

<li><a href="Soul_music" title="Soul music">Soul music</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">Musical instruments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arched_Harp" class="mw-redirect" title="Arched Harp">Arched Harp</a></li>

<li><a href="Angular_harp" title="Angular harp">Angular harp</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_harpsichord" title="History of the harpsichord">History of the harpsichord</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_lute-family_instruments" title="History of lute-family instruments">History of lute-family instruments</a></li>

<li><a href="Nafir" title="Nafir">Nafir</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_timpani_in_the_18th_and_19th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of timpani in the 18th and 19th centuries">Evolution of timpani in the 18th and 19th centuries</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_trumpet" title="History of the trumpet">History of the trumpet</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_violin" title="History of the violin">History of the violin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Musician" title="Musician">Musician</a></li><li><a href="Musical_ensemble" title="Musical ensemble">Ensembles</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Backup_band" title="Backup band">Backup band</a></li>

<li><a href="All-female_band" title="All-female band">All-female band</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhythm_section" title="Rhythm section">Rhythm section</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Concert_band" title="Concert band">Concert band</a></li>

<li><a href="Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">Disc jockey</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_band" title="Military band">Military band</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lead_vocalist" title="Lead vocalist">Lead vocalist</a></li>

<li><a href="Backing_vocalist" title="Backing vocalist">Backing vocalist</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Music_theory" title="Music theory">Theory</a></li><li><a href="Musical_composition" title="Musical composition">Composition</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Music_genre" title="Music genre">Genre</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_improvisation" title="Musical improvisation">Improvisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Lyrics" title="Lyrics">Lyrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Singing" title="Singing">Singing</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_technique" title="Musical technique">Technique</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Music_education" title="Music education">Education</a> and study</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bachelor_of_Music" title="Bachelor of Music">Bachelor of Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Music" title="Master of Music">Master of Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Musical_Arts" title="Doctor of Musical Arts">Doctor of Musical Arts</a></li>

<li><a href="Method_(music)" title="Method (music)">Method</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">Music archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_history" title="Music history">Music history</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_school" title="Music school">Music school</a>

<ul><li><a href="Composition_school" title="Composition school">Composition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Musicology" title="Musicology">Musicology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biomusicology" title="Biomusicology">Biomusicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_musicology" title="Cognitive musicology">Cognitive musicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_musicology" title="Computational musicology">Computational musicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecomusicology" title="Ecomusicology">Ecomusicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</a></li>

<li><a href="New_musicology" title="New musicology">New musicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Organology" title="Organology">Organology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Sociomusicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoomusicology" title="Zoomusicology">Zoomusicology</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Single_(music)" title="Single (music)">Single</a>

<li><a href="Extended_play" title="Extended play">Extended play</a>

<ul><li><a href="Compilation_album" title="Compilation album">Compilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Remix_album" title="Remix album">Remix</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio engineer</a></li>

<li><a href="Record_label" title="Record label">Record label</a></li>

<li><a href="Record_producer" title="Record producer">Record producer</a></li>

<li><a href="Sampling_(music)" title="Sampling (music)">Sampling</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_technology_(electric)" title="Music technology (electric)">Music technology (electric)</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_technology_(electronic_and_digital)" title="Music technology (electronic and digital)">Music technology (electronic and digital)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_recording_and_reproduction" title="Sound recording and reproduction">Sound recording and reproduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Cover_version" title="Cover version">Cover</a></li>

<li><a href="Remix" title="Remix">Remix</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="List_of_cultural_and_regional_genres_of_music" title="List of cultural and regional genres of music">Cultural and <br>regional genres</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">African</a>

<ul><li>Central</li>

<li><a href="Music_of_North_Africa" title="Music of North Africa">North</a></li>

<li>Southern</li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Asia" title="Music of Asia">Asian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Music_of_Central_Asia" title="Music of Central Asia">Central</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Eastern_music" title="Middle Eastern music">Middle Eastern</a></li>

<li>South</li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Music of Southeast Asia">Southeast</a></li></ul></li>

<li>European

<ul><li><a href="Balkan_music" title="Balkan music">Balkan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nordic_folk_music" title="Nordic folk music">Nordic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Latin_America" title="Music of Latin America">Latin American</a>

<ul><li>Central American</li>

<li>South American</li></ul></li>

<li>North American

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Caribbean_music_genres" title="List of Caribbean music genres">Caribbean</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Oceanian

<ul><li><a href="Music_of_Melanesia" title="Music of Melanesia">Melanesian</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Micronesia">Micronesian</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Polynesia" title="Music of Polynesia">Polynesian</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By sovereign state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="8129" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> </div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="Music_of_Afghanistan" title="Music of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Albania" title="Music of Albania">Albania</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Algeria" title="Music of Algeria">Algeria</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Andorra" title="Music of Andorra">Andorra</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Angola" title="Music of Angola">Angola</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Music of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Argentina" title="Music of Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Armenia" title="Music of Armenia">Armenia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Australia" title="Music of Australia">Australia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Austria" title="Music of Austria">Austria</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Azerbaijan" title="Music of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Bahamas" title="Music of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Bahrain" title="Music of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Bangladesh" title="Music of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Barbados" title="Music of Barbados">Barbados</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Belarus" title="Music of Belarus">Belarus</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Belgium" title="Music of Belgium">Belgium</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Belize" title="Music of Belize">Belize</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Benin" title="Music of Benin">Benin</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Bhutan" title="Music of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Bolivia" title="Music of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Botswana" title="Music of Botswana">Botswana</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Brazil" title="Music of Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Brunei" title="Music of Brunei">Brunei</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Bulgaria" title="Music of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Burkina_Faso" title="Music of Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Burundi" title="Music of Burundi">Burundi</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Cambodia" title="Music of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Cameroon" title="Music of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Canada" title="Music of Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Cape_Verde" title="Music of Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Music of the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Chad" title="Music of Chad">Chad</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Chile" title="Music of Chile">Chile</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_China" title="Music of China">China</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Colombia" title="Music of Colombia">Colombia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Comoros" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Comoros">Comoros</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Costa_Rica" title="Music of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Croatia" title="Music of Croatia">Croatia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Cuba" title="Music of Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Cyprus" title="Music of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Music of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Denmark" title="Music of Denmark">Denmark</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Djibouti" title="Music of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Dominica" title="Music of Dominica">Dominica</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Music of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Ecuador" title="Music of Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_El_Salvador" title="Music of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Music of Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Eritrea" title="Music of Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Estonia" title="Music of Estonia">Estonia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Eswatini" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Ethiopia" title="Music of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Fiji" title="Music of Fiji">Fiji</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Finland" title="Music of Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_France" title="Music of France">France</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Gabon" title="Music of Gabon">Gabon</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Gambia" title="Music of the Gambia">Gambia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Music of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Germany" title="Music of Germany">Germany</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Ghana" title="Music of Ghana">Ghana</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Greece" title="Music of Greece">Greece</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Grenada" title="Music of Grenada">Grenada</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Guatemala" title="Music of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Guinea" title="Music of Guinea">Guinea</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="Music of Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Guyana" title="Music of Guyana">Guyana</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Haiti" title="Music of Haiti">Haiti</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Honduras" title="Music of Honduras">Honduras</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Hungary" title="Music of Hungary">Hungary</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Iceland" title="Music of Iceland">Iceland</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_India" title="Music of India">India</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Indonesia" title="Music of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Iraq</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Israel" title="Music of Israel">Israel</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Italy</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Ivory_Coast" title="Music of Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Jamaica" title="Music of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Japan" title="Music of Japan">Japan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Jordan" title="Music of Jordan">Jordan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Kazakhstan" title="Music of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Kenya" title="Music of Kenya">Kenya</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Kiribati" title="Music of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Kosovo" title="Music of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Kuwait" title="Music of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Kyrgyzstan" title="Music of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Laos" title="Music of Laos">Laos</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Latvia" title="Music of Latvia">Latvia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Lebanon" title="Music of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Lesotho" title="Music of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Liberia" title="Music of Liberia">Liberia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Libya" title="Music of Libya">Libya</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Liechtenstein" title="Music of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Lithuania" title="Music of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Luxembourg" title="Music of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Madagascar" title="Music of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Malawi" title="Music of Malawi">Malawi</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Malaysia" title="Music of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Mali" title="Music of Mali">Mali</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Malta" title="Music of Malta">Malta</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Music of the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Mauritania" title="Music of Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Mauritius" title="Music of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Mexico" title="Music of Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Moldova" title="Music of Moldova">Moldova</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Monaco" title="Music of Monaco">Monaco</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Mongolia" title="Music of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Morocco" title="Music of Morocco">Morocco</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Mozambique" title="Music of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Myanmar" title="Music of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Namibia" title="Music of Namibia">Namibia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Nauru" title="Music of Nauru">Nauru</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Nepal" title="Music of Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Netherlands" title="Music of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_New_Zealand" title="Music of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Nicaragua" title="Music of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Niger" title="Music of Niger">Niger</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Nigeria" title="Music of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_North_Korea" title="Music of North Korea">North Korea</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_North_Macedonia" title="Music of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Norway" title="Music of Norway">Norway</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Oman" title="Music of Oman">Oman</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Pakistan" title="Music of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Palau" title="Music of Palau">Palau</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Palestine" title="Music of Palestine">Palestine</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Panama" title="Music of Panama">Panama</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Music of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Paraguay" title="Music of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Peru" title="Music of Peru">Peru</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Philippines" title="Music of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Poland" title="Music of Poland">Poland</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Portugal" title="Music of Portugal">Portugal</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Qatar" title="Music of Qatar">Qatar</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Music of the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Romania" title="Music of Romania">Romania</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Russia" title="Music of Russia">Russia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Rwanda" title="Music of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Music of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Saint_Lucia" title="Music of Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Music of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Samoa" title="Music of Samoa">Samoa</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_San_Marino" title="Music of San Marino">San Marino</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Music of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Senegal" title="Music of Senegal">Senegal</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Serbia" title="Music of Serbia">Serbia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Seychelles" title="Music of Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Sierra_Leone" title="Music of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Singapore" title="Music of Singapore">Singapore</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Slovakia" title="Music of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Slovenia" title="Music of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Solomon_Islands" title="Music of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Somalia" title="Music of Somalia">Somalia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_South_Africa" title="Music of South Africa">South Africa</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_South_Korea" title="Music of South Korea">South Korea</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Spain" title="Music of Spain">Spain</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Music of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Sudan" title="Music of Sudan">Sudan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Suriname" title="Music of Suriname">Suriname</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Sweden" title="Music of Sweden">Sweden</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Switzerland" title="Music of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Syria</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Music of São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Taiwan" title="Music of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Tajikistan" title="Music of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Tanzania" title="Music of Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Thailand" title="Music of Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Timor-Leste" title="Music of Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Togo" title="Music of Togo">Togo</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Tonga" title="Music of Tonga">Tonga</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Music of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Tunisia" title="Music of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Turkey" title="Music of Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Turkmenistan" title="Music of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Tuvalu" title="Music of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Uganda" title="Music of Uganda">Uganda</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Ukraine" title="Music of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Music of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Music of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Uruguay" title="Music of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Uzbekistan" title="Music of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Vatican_City" title="Music of Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Venezuela" title="Music of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Vietnam" title="Music of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Western_Sahara" title="Music of Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Yemen" title="Music of Yemen">Yemen</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Zambia" title="Music of Zambia">Zambia</a></li><li><a href="Music_of_Zimbabwe" title="Music of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Index_of_music_articles" title="Index of music articles">Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_music" title="Outline of music">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_musical_events" title="Timeline of musical events">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Lists_of_albums" title="Lists of albums">Albums</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_classical_and_art_music_traditions" title="List of classical and art music traditions">Classical and art music traditions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_classical_music_genres" title="List of classical music genres">Classical music genres</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_cultural_and_regional_genres_of_music" title="List of cultural and regional genres of music">Cultural and regional genres</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_musical_instruments" title="List of musical instruments">Instruments</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_jazz_and_popular_music" title="Glossary of jazz and popular music">Jazz and popular music glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_music_genres_and_styles" title="List of music genres and styles">Music genres and styles</a></li>

<li><a href="Lists_of_songs" title="Lists of songs">Songs</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_music_terminology" title="Glossary of music terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Aesthetics of music</a></li>

<li><a href="Album_era" title="Album era">Album era</a></li>

<li><a href="Fictional_music" title="Fictional music">Fictional music</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_and_emotion" title="Music and emotion">Music and emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Exercise_and_music" title="Exercise and music">Music and exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_and_fashion" title="Music and fashion">Music and fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_industry" title="Music industry">Music industry</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_and_politics" title="Music and politics">Music and politics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Music_censorship" title="Music censorship">Censorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmentalism_in_music" title="Environmentalism in music">Environmentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_and_political_warfare" title="Music and political warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Music_and_sleep" title="Music and sleep">Music and sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_community" title="Music community">Music community</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_festival" title="Music festival">Music festival</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_technology" title="Music technology">Music technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_therapy" title="Music therapy">Music therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_escapism" title="Musical escapism">Musical escapism</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">Musical instrument</a>

<ul><li><a href="Musical_instrument_classification" title="Musical instrument classification">Classification</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_music" title="Women in music">Women in music</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3AMusic" title="Portal:Music">Music portal</a></b></li>

<li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ARecord_production" title="Portal:Record production">Record production portal</a></b></li>

<li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q233861#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2069" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q233861#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2069" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4135339-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85089012">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Notation musicale"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11936523z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Notation musicale"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11936523z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565733">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="hudební notace"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120919&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="notové písmo"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph123335&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Notación musical"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX525789">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007555760005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/ebf3fc9e-f337-4c72-a475-70e55305b4b7">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-02" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Musical_notation&oldid=1303939748">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>